Robotics

The Shadow robot hand system holding a lightbulb.

Robotics Portal

Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application.Definition of robotics - Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved on 2007-08-26. Robotics requires a working knowledge of electronics, mechanics and software, and is usually accompanied by a large working knowledge of many subjects.Industry Spotlight: Robotics from Monster Career Advice. Retrieved on 2007-08-26. A person working in the field is a roboticist.

Although the appearance and capabilities of robots vary vastly, all robots share the features of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of autonomous control. The structure of a robot is usually mostly mechanical and can be called a kinematic chain (its functionality being akin to the skeleton of the human body). The chain is formed of links (its bones), actuators (its muscles) and joints which can allow one or more degrees of freedom. Most contemporary robots use open serial chains in which each link connects the one before to the one after it. These robots are called serial robots and often resemble the human arm. Some robots, such as the Stewart platform, use closed parallel kinematic chains. Other structures, such as those that mimic the mechanical structure of humans, various animals and insects, are comparatively rare. However, the development and use of such structures in robots is an active area of research (e.g. biomechanics). Robots used as manipulators have an end effector mounted on the last link. This end effector can be anything from a welding device to a mechanical hand used to manipulate the environment.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Components of robots 2.1 Actuation 2.2 Manipulation 2.3 Locomotion 2.3.1 Rolling Robots 2.3.2 Walking Robots 2.3.3 Other methods of locomotion 2.4 Human interaction 3 Control 4 Dynamics and kinematics 5 External links 6 References

Etymology

The word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, in his science fiction short story "Runaround", published in March 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction.Isaac Asimov. Isaac Asimov\'s Robotics FAQ. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. While it was based on the word "robot" coined by science fiction author Karel Čapek, Asimov was unaware that he was coining a new term. The design of electrical devices is called electronics, so the design of robots is called robotics.Asimov, Isaac (2003). Gold. Eos.  Before the coining of the term, however, there was interest in ideas similar to robotics (namely automata and androids) dating as far back as the 8th or 7th century BC. In the Iliad, the god Hephaestus made talking handmaidens out of gold. Deborah Levine Gera. Ancient Greek Ideas on Speech, Language, and Civilization. Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Archytas of Tarentum is credited with creating a mechanical Pigeon in 400 BC.BBC NEWS. Retrieved on 2007-08-26. Robots are used in industrial, military, exploration, home making, and academic and research applications.Robotics: About the Exhibition. Retrieved on 2007-08-26.

Components of robots

Actuation

A robot leg, powered by Air Muscles.

The actuators are the \'muscles\' of a robot; the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors, but there are many others, some of which are powered by electricity, while others use chemicals, or compressed air.

• Motors: By far the vast majority of robots use electric motors, of which there are several kinds. DC motors, which are familiar to many people, spin rapidly when an electric current is passed through them. They will spin backwards if the current is made to flow in the other direction.
• Stepper Motors: As the name suggests, stepper motors do not spin freely like DC motors, they rotate in steps of a few degrees at a time, under the command of a controller. This makes them easier to control, as the controller knows exactly how far they have rotated, without having to use a sensor. Therefore they are used on many robots and CNC machining centres.
• Piezo Motors: A recent alternative to DC motors are piezo motors, also known as ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic legs, vibrating many thousands of times per second, walk the motor round in a circle or a straight line.Piezo LEGS® - Technology. Piezomotor. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. The advantages of these motors are incredible nanometre resolution, speed and available force for their size.Squiggle Motors: Overview. Retrieved on 2007-10-08. These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.Nishibori et al. (2003). "Robot Hand with Fingers Using Vibration-Type Ultrasonic Motors (Driving Characteristics)". Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics. Retrieved on 2007-10-09.Yamano and Maeno (2005). "Five-fingered Robot Hand using Ultrasonic Motors and Elastic Elements" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Retrieved on 2007-10-09.
• Air Muscles: The air muscle is a simple yet powerful device for providing a pulling force. When inflated with compressed air, it contracts by up to 40% of its original length. The key to its behaviour is the braiding visible around the outside, which forces the muscle to be either long and thin, or short and fat. Since it behaves in a very similar way to a biological muscle, it can be used to construct robots with a similar muscle/skeleton system to an animal.Shadow Robot Company: Air Muscles. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. For example, the Shadow robot hand uses 40 air muscles to power its 24 joints.
• Electroactive Polymers: These are a class of plastics which change shape in response to electrical stimulation.ElectroActive Polymers - EAPs. Azom.com The A-Z of Materials. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. They can be designed so that they bend, stretch or contract, but so far there are no EAPs suitable for commercial robots, as they tend to have low efficiency or are not robust.Yoseph Bar-Cohen (2002). "Electro-active polymers: current capabilities and challenges" (PDF). Proceedings of the SPIE Smart Structures and Materials Symposium. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. Indeed, all of the entrants in a recent competition to build EAP powered arm wrestling robots, were beaten by a 17 year old girl.Graham-Rowe, Duncan (2002-03-08). "Arm wrestling robots beaten by a teenaged girl". New Scientist. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.  However, they are expected to improve in the future, where they may be useful for microrobotic applications.Otake et al. (2001). "Shape Design of Gel Robots made of Electroactive Polymer Gel" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

• Elastic nanotubes are a promising, early-stage experimental technology. The absence of defects in nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10J per cu. cm for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans. John D. Madden, 2007, Mobile Robots: Motor Challenges and Materials Solutions, Science 16 November 2007:

Vol. 318. no. 5853, pp. 1094 - 1097, DOI: 10.1126/science.1146351

Manipulation

Robots which must work in the real world require some way to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy or otherwise have an effect. Thus the \'hands\' of a robot are often referred to as end effectorsWhat is a a robotic end-effector?. ATI Industrial Automation (2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16., while the arm is referred to as a manipulator.Crane, Carl D.; Joseph Duffy (1998-03). Kinematic Analysis of Robot Manipulators. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521570638. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.  Most robot arms have replacable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example a humanoid hand.

A simple gripper

• Grippers: A common effector is the gripper. In its simplest manifestation it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. See End effectors [1].
• Vacuum Grippers: Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, will often use very simple vacuum grippers. These are very simple astrictive devices, but can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.
• General purpose effectors: Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand (right), or the Schunk hand.Allcock, Andrew (2006-09). Anthropomorphic hand is almost human. Machinery. Retrieved on 2007-10-17. These highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors Shadow Dextrous Hand technical spec can be difficult to control. The computer must consider a great deal of information, and decide on the best way to manipulate an object from many possibilities.

For the definitive guide to all forms of robot endeffectors, their design and usage consult the book "Robot Grippers" G.J. Monkman, S. Hesse, R. Steinmann & H. Schunk – Robot Grippers - Wiley, Berlin 2007 .

Locomotion

Rolling Robots

Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya.

For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels. However, some researchers have tried to create more complex wheeled robots, with only one or two wheels.

• Two-wheeled balancing: While the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot. Several real robots do use a similar dynamic balancing algorithm, and NASA\'s Robonaut has been mounted on a Segway.ROBONAUT Activity Report. NASA (2004-02). Retrieved on 2007-10-20.
• Ballbot: Carnegie Mellon University researchers have developed a new type of mobile robot that balances on a ball instead of legs or wheels. "Ballbot" is a self-contained, battery-operated, omnidirectional robot that balances dynamically on a single urethane-coated metal sphere. It weighs 95 pounds and is the approximate height and width of a person. Because of its long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, it has the potential to function better than current robots can in environments with people.Carnegie Mellon (2006-08-09). "Carnegie Mellon Researchers Develop New Type of Mobile Robot That Balances and Moves on a Ball Instead of Legs or Wheels". Press release.
• Track Robot: Another type of rolling robot is one that has tracks, like NASA\'s Urban Robot, Urbie. http://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/systems/system.cfm?System=4#urbie

Walking Robots

iCub robot, designed by the RobotCub Consortium

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. Typically, these robots can walk well on flat floors, and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

• Zero Moment Point (ZMP) Technique: is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda\'s ASIMO. The robot\'s onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of earth\'s gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot\'s foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over).Achieving Stable Walking. Honda Worldwide. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is quite apparent to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory.Funny Walk. Pooter Geek (2004-12-28). Retrieved on 2007-10-22.ASIMO\'s Pimp Shuffle. Popular Science (2007-01-09). Retrieved on 2007-10-22.Vtec Forum: A drunk robot? thread ASIMO\'s walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (See below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.
• Hopping: Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.3D One-Leg Hopper (1983-1984). MIT Leg Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.3D Biped (1989-1995). MIT Leg Laboratory. A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace and bound.Quadruped (1984-1987). MIT Leg Laboratory. For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.
• Dynamic Balancing: A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot\'s motion, and places the feet in order to main stability.About the robots. Anybots. Retrieved on 2007-10-23. This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots\' Dexter Robot,Homepage. Anybots. Retrieved on 2007-10-23. which is so stable, it can even jump.Dexter Jumps video. YouTube (2007-03). Retrieved on 2007-10-23.
• Passive Dynamics: Perhaps the most promising approach being taken is to use the momentum of swinging limbs for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.Collins, Steve; Wisse, Martijn; Ruina, Andy; Tedrake, Russ (2005-02-11). "Efficient bipedal robots based on passive-dynamic Walkers" (PDF). Science (307): 1082-1085. Retrieved on 2007-09-11. Collins, Steve; Ruina, Andy. "A bipedal walking robot with efficient and human-like gait". Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.. 

Other methods of locomotion

RQ-4 Global Hawk Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. No pilot means no windows.

• Flying: A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to attend it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeoff, normal flight and even landing.^{[citation needed]} Other flying robots are completely automated, and are known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human pilot, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter and the Epson micro helicopter robot.

Two robot snakes. Left one has 32 motors, the right one 10.

• Snake: Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings.Miller, Gavin. Introduction. snakerobots.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot ACM-R5 can even navigate both on land and in water.Swimming snake robot (commentary in Japanese)
• Skating: A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skating device, Titan VIII. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or rollCommercialized Quadruped Walking Vehicle "TITAN VII". Hirose Fukushima Robotics Lab. Retrieved on 2007-10-23.. Another robot, Plen, can use a miniature skateboard or rollerskates, and skate across a desktop.Plen, the robot that skates across your desk. SCI FI Tech (2007-01-23). Retrieved on 2007-10-23.
• Swimming: It is calculated that some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%. Sfakiotakis, et al. (1999-04). "Review of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic Locomotion" (PDF). IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering. Retrieved on 2007-10-24. Furthermore, they can accelerate and manoeuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copy this type of locomotion.Richard Mason. What is the market for robot fish?. Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic FishRobotic fish powered by Gumstix PC and PIC. Human Centred Robotics Group at Essex University. Retrieved on 2007-10-25., and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyse and mathematically model thunniform motion.Witoon Juwarahawong. Fish Robot. Institute of Field Robotics. Retrieved on 2007-10-25.

Human interaction

Kismet (robot) can produce a range of Facial expressions

If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually communicate with humans by talking, gestures and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is quite unnatural for the robot. It will be quite a while before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C3P0.

• Speech Recognition: Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent.Survey of the State of the Art in Human Language Technology: 1.2: Speech Recognition Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952.Fournier, Randolph Scott., and B. June. Schmidt. "Voice Input Technology: Learning Style and Attitude Toward Its Use." Delta Pi Epsilon Journal 37 (1995): 1_12. Currently, the best systems can recognise continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.History of Speech & Voice Recognition and Transcription Software. Dragon Naturally Speaking. Retrieved on 2007-10-27.
• Gestures: One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. On both of these occasions, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognising gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is quite likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots.Waldherr, Romero & Thrun (2000). "A Gesture Based Interface for Human-Robot Interaction" (PDF). Kluwer Academic Publishers. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. A great many systems have been developed to recognise human hand gestures.Markus Kohler. Vision Based Hand Gesture Recognition Systems. University of Dortmund. Retrieved on 2007-10-28.
• Facial expression: Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon it may be able to do the same for humans and robots. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, a robot like Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.Kismet: Robot at MIT\'s AI Lab Interacts With Humans. Sam Ogden. Retrieved on 2007-10-28.
• Personality: Many of the robots of science fiction have personality, and that is something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future.(Park et al. 2005) Synthetic Personality in Robots and its Effect on Human-Robot Relationship Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personalityNational Public Radio: Robot Receptionist Dishes Directions and AttitudeNew Scientist: A good robot has personality but not looks: i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.Ugobe: Introducing Pleo

Control

The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks. The control of a robot involves three distinct phases - perception, processing and action (robotic paradigms). Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector). Using strategies from the field of control theory, this information is processed to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical structure. The control of a robot involves path planning, pattern recognition, obstacle avoidance, etc. More complex and adaptable control strategies can be referred to as artificial intelligence.

Dynamics and kinematics

The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics. Direct kinematics refers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance and singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics, methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this, criteria for "optimal" performance and ways to optimize design, structure and control of robots must be developed and implemented.

External links

• The “official” Hall of Fame for robots Voting is currently underway for a new round of inductees.
• Robot news and Robotics information
• Small robots drive trains – A tutorial discussing the different techniques used to build the chassis and drive trains of relatively small robots
• A review of robotics software platforms Linux Devices.
• UNSW Computational Mechanics and Robotics Group
• Robotics news, theory of robotics
• "How Robots Work"
• JPL\'s Robotic website

References

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from Wikipedia