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This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) | |||
| Structural history | |||
| Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals) | |||
| Roman navy (fleets, admirals) | |||
| Campaign history | |||
| Lists of wars and battles | |||
| Decorations and punishments | |||
| Technological history | |||
| Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads) | |||
| Personal equipment | |||
| Political history | |||
| Strategy and tactics | |||
| Infantry tactics | |||
| Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian\'s Wall) | |||
The history of ancient Rome—originally a city-state of Italy, and later an empire covering much of Eurasia and North Africa from the ninth century BC to the fifth century AD—was often closely entwined with its military history. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is the account of the Roman military\'s land battles, from its initial defence against and subsequent conquest of the city\'s hilltop neighbours in the Italian peninsula, to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns, Vandals and Germanic tribes after the empire\'s split into East and West. Despite the later Empire\'s encompassing of lands around the periphery of the Mediterranean sea, naval battles were typically less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome, due to its largely unchallenged dominance of the sea following fierce naval fighting during the First Punic War.
The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbours and Etruscan towns within Italy, and later came to dominate much of the Mediterranean and further afield, including the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor at the Empire\'s height. As with most ancient civilisations, Rome\'s military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order.Trigger, Understanding Early Civilisations, p. 240 From the outset, Rome\'s military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome\'s campaigns were characterised by one of two types: the first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive,Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38 in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory and allowed Rome to grow from a small town to the third largest empire in the ancient world, encompassing around one quarter of the world\'s total population;Goldsmith, An Estimate of the Size and Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire, p. 263 the second is the civil war of which examples plagued Rome right from its foundation to its eventual demise.
Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories:Johnson, The Dream of Rome, p. 8 over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents"Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 15 who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome\'s enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 312 to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome\'s campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 31Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 96
Rape of the Sabine Women, by Nicolas Poussin, Rome, 1637–38 (Louvre Museum)
| Apocryphal Roman Wars |
|---|
| The Rape of the Sabine Women - Caenina - Antemnae - Crustumerium - Fidenae - Veii - Albans - Medullia - Apiloae - Collatia |
| Wars of Etruscan Rome |
|---|
| Veii - Gabii - Rutuli |
Rome is almost unique in the ancient world in that its history, military and otherwise, is documented often in great detail almost from the city\'s very foundation right through to its eventual demise. Although some histories have sadly been lost, such as Trajan\'s account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome\'s earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, nevertheless the extant histories of Rome\'s military history are extensive.
The very earliest history, from the time of Rome\'s founding as a small tribal village,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. 3, para. 8 through to the downfall of Rome\'s kings, is the least well preserved. This is because, whilst the early Romans were literate to some degree,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 23 they either lacked the will to record their history at this time, or else such histories as they did record were lost.Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 3
Although the Roman historian Livy lists a series of seven kings of early Rome in his work Ab Urbe Condita, from its establishment and through its earliest years, the first four \'kings\' (Romulus,Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 1 Numa,Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 2Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 6 Tullus HostiliusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 3 and Ancus MarciusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 4) are almost certainly entirely apocryphal. Grant and others argue that prior to the time when the Etruscan kingdom of Rome was established under the traditionally fifth king Tarquinius Priscus,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. V, para. 1 Rome would have been led by a religious leader of some sort.Grant,The History of Rome, p. 21 Very little is known of Rome\'s military history during this era and what history has come down to us is of a legendary rather than factual nature. Traditionally, Romulus fortified one of the first-settled of Rome\'s seven hills, the Palatine Hill, after founding the city and Livy states that shortly after its founding Rome was "equal to any of the surrounding cities in her prowess in war".Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 13
| "Events before the city was founded or planned, which have been handed down more as pleasing poetic fictions than as reliable records of historical events, I intend neither to affirm nor to refute. To antiquity we grant the indulgence of making the origins of cities more impressive by comingling the human with the divine, and if any people should be permitted to sanctify its inception and reckon the gods as its founders, surely the glory of the Roman people in war is such that, when it boasts Mars in particular as its parent... the nations of the world would as easily acquiesce in this claim as they do in our rule." |
| Livy, on Rome\'s early historyLivy, The Rise of Rome, p. 3 |
The first campaign, if such it can be called, that was fought by the Romans in this legendary account is their seizing of the women from several nearby villages inhabited by the Sabine people for purposes of "begetting their children",Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 15 an event known as The Rape of the Sabine Women. According to Livy, the Sabine village of Caenina responded first by invading Roman territory, but were routed and their city captured. The Sabines of Antemnae were defeated next in a similar fashion, and again the Sabines of Crustumerium. The remaining main body of the Sabines attacked Rome and briefly captured the citadel, but were then routed.Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 9
There were further wars against the Fidenae,Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 33 Veientes, the Albans,Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 27 the Medullia, the Apiolae,Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 44 and the Collatia.Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 46
Under the Etruscan kings Tarquinius Priscus,Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 5 Servius TulliusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 6 and Tarquinius SuperbusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 7 Rome expanded to the north-west, coming into conflict again with the Veientes after the expiry of the treaty that concluded their earlier war.Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 56 There was a further campaign against the Gabii,Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 61Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 10 and later against the Rutuli.Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 66 The Etruscan kings were overthrownFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 9 as part of a wider reduction in Etruscan power in the region during this period, and Rome reformed itself as a republic,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 31Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. VI, para. 1 a form of government based on popular representation and in contrast to its previous autocratic kingship.
Map showing Rome\'s Etruscan neighbours
| Rome\'s Early Italian Campaigns |
|---|
| 1st Rome - 2nd Rome - Lake Regillus - Cremera - Mons Algidus - Corbione - Fidenae - Veii |
The first non-apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 33 Florus writes that at this time
| “ | Insert the text of the quote here, without quotation marks. | ” |
Although sources disagree, it is possible that Rome itself was twice invested by Etruscan armies in this period, first in around 509 BC under the recently-overthrown king Tarquinius Superbus,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 32Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 77 and again in 508 BC under the Etruscan Lars Porsenna.Livy, The Rise of Rome, xxxiLivy, The Rise of Rome, p. 80
Initially, Rome\'s immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villagesFlorus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 11 on a similar tribal system to Rome itself, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 38 One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers, as had Rome. Rome defeated the Lavinii and Tusculi in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 37Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 89 the Sabines in an Unknown Battle in 449 BC, the Aequi in the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC and the Battle of Corbione in 446 BCCassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 17), the VolsciCassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 16 in the Battle of CorbioneThe Enemies of Rome, p. 13 in 446 BC and the Capture of Antium in 377 BCGrant, The History of Rome, p. 39), the Aurunci in the Battle of Aricia,Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 96 and the Veientes in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 41Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 12 the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BCGrant, The History of Rome, p. 42 and the Siege of Veii in 396 BC.Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 20 After defeating the Veientes, the Romans had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan neighbours,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. II as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the Apennine hills.
However, Rome still controlled only a very limited area and the affairs of Rome were minor even to those in Italy: the remains of Veii, for instance, lie entirely within modern Rome\'s suburbs and Rome\'s affairs were only just coming to the attention of the Greeks, the dominant cultural force at the time.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 44 At this point the bulk of Italy remained in the hands of Latin, Sabine, Samnite and other peoples in the central part of Italy, Greek colonies to the south, and, notably, the Celtic people, including the Gauls, to the north. The Celtic civilisation at this time was vibrant and growing in strength and territory, and stretched, if incohesively, across much of mainland Europe. It is at the hands of the Gallic Celts that Rome suffered a humiliating defeat that temporarily set back its advance and was to imprint itself upon the Roman consciousness.
| Roman-Gaulish Wars |
|---|
| Allia River - Arretium – Lake Vadimo – Faesulae – Telamon – Clastidium - Cremona – Mutina |
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. Most of this was unknown to the Romans at this time, who still had purely local security concerns, but the Romans were alerted when a particularly warlike tribe,Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 13 the Senones, invaded the Etruscan province of Siena from the north and attacked the town of Clusium,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 2 not far from Rome\'s sphere of influence. The Clusians, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. Perhaps unintentionally the Romans found themselves not just in conflict with the Senones, but their primary target. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390-387 BC. The Gauls, under their chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and partially sacked the townLivy, The Rise of Rome, p. 329Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 283 before being either driven offLivy, The Rise of Rome, p. 330Appian, History of Rome, The Gallic Wars, §1 or bought off.
Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent warfare was to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries, including the Battle of the Anio, the Battle of Lake Vadimo, the Battle of Faesulae in 225 BC, the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, the Battle of Clastidium in 222 BC, the Battle of Cremona in 200 BC, the Battle of Mutina in 194 BC, the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul following the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.
Apennine hills around Samnium
| Ancient Unification of Italy |
|---|
| Latin War – Samnite Wars – Pyrrhic War – Social War |
| Samnite Wars |
|---|
| Mons Gaurus - Suessola - Neapolis - Caudine Forks – Lautulae – Bovianum Camerinum - Sentinum - Aquilonia |
After recovering surprisingly swiftly from the sack of Rome,Pennell, Ancient Rme, Ch. IX, para. 4 the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. Despite their successes so far, their mastery of the whole of Italy was by no means assured at this point: the Samnites were a people just as martialPennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 23 and as richFlorus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 1, ch. 16 as the Romans and with an objective of their own of securing more lands in the fertile Italian plains on which Rome itself lay.Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 282 The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC that followed widespread Samnite incursions into Rome\'s territoryPennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 8 was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessola in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 48Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 13
Rome was therefore forced to contend by around 340 BC against both Samnite incursions into their territory and, simultaneously, in a bitter war against their former allies. Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum, after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 49Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 14 Perhaps due to Rome\'s lenient treatment of their defeated foe, the Latins submitted largely amicably to Roman rule for the next 200 years.
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 52 running for over twenty years and incorporating twenty-four battles that led to massive casualties on both sides. The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course: the Samnites seized Neapolis in the Capture of Neapolis in 327 BC, which the Romans then re-captured before losing at the Battle of the Caudine ForksLane Fox, The Classical World, p. 290 and the Battle of Lautulae. The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies. This pattern of meeting aggression in force and almost inadvertently gaining territory in strategic counter-attacks was to become a common feature of Roman military history.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome, all of whom were probably keen to prevent any one faction dominating the entire region. The army that faced the Romans at the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC therefore included Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans and Umbrians.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 53 When the Roman army won a convincing victory over these combined forces it must have become clear that little could prevent Roman dominance of Italy. In the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
| Pyrrhic War |
|---|
| Heraclea – Asculum – Beneventum |
By the beginning of the third century, Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms. Rome had all but completely defeated the Samnites, mastered its fellow Latin towns, and greatly reduced Etruscan power in the region. However, the south of Italy was controlled by the Greek colonies of Magna GreciaGrant, The History of Rome, p. 77 who had been allied to the Samnites, and continued Roman expansion brought the two into inevitable conflict.MatyszakThe Enemies of Rome, p. 14Grant, The History of Rome, p. 78
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and the Greek colony of TarentumLane Fox, The Classical World, p. 294 erupted into open warfare in the naval Battle of Thurii, Tarentum appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of Epirus.Cantor, Antiquity, p. 151 Motivated by his diplomatic obligations to Tarentum, and a personal desire for military accomplishment,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. X, para. 6 Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men and a contingent of war elephantsFlorus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 1, ch. 18 on Italian soil in 280 B.C,Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 304 where his forces were joined by some Greek colonists and a portion of the Samnites who revolted against Roman control.
The Roman army had not yet seen elephants in battle, and their inexperience turned the tide in Pyrrhus\' favour at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC,Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 305 and again at the Battle of Ausculum in 279 BC.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 79Grant, The History of Rome, p. 79 Despite these victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy.Cassius Dio, The Roman history, Vol. 1, VIII, 3 Furthermore, Rome entered into a treaty of support with Carthage, and Pyrrhus found that despite his expectations, none of the other Italic peoples would defect to the Greek and Samnite cause.Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. X, para. 11 Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, and failing to find further allies in Italy, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula and campaigned in Sicily against Carthage,Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 306 abandoning his allies to deal with the Romans.
When his Sicilian campaign was also ultimately a failure, and at the request of his Italian allies, Pyrrhus returned to Italy to face Rome once more. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. This time the Romans had devised methods to deal with the war elephants, including the use of javelins, fire and, one source claims, simply hitting the elephants heavily on the head. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised that his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome, however. Rome had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia.Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 307 Effectively dominating the Italian peninsula,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XI, para. 1 and with a proven international military reputation,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 80 Rome now began to look outwards at expansion from the Italian mainland. Since the Alps formed a natural barrier to the north, and Rome was none too keen to meet the fierce Gauls in battle once more, the city\'s gaze turned to Sicily and the islands of the Mediterranean, a policy that would bring it into direct conflict with its former ally Carthage.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 16
Rome first began to make war outside the Italian peninsula in the Punic wars against Carthage, a former Phoenician colonySallust, The Jugurthine War, XIX on the north coast of Africa that had developed into a powerful state. These wars, starting in 264 BCCantor, Antiquity, p. 152 were probably the largest conflicts of the ancient world yet Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 13 and saw Rome become most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean, with territory in Sicily, North Africa, Iberia, and with the end of the Macedonian wars (which ran concurrently with the Punic wars) Greece as well. After the defeat of the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III the Great in the Roman-Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world.
Theatre of Punic Wars
| First Punic War |
|---|
| Messana – Agrigentum – Lipari Islands – Mylae – Sulci – Tyndaris – Cape Ecnomus – Adys – Tunis – Panormus – 1st Drepana – Lillybaeum – 2nd Drepana – Mt Ercte – 1st Mt Eryx - 2nd Mt Eryx – Aegates Islands |
| Second Punic War |
|---|
| Saguntum – Lilybaeum – Rhone – Ticinus – Trebia – Cissa – Lake Trasimene – Ebro River – Ager Falernus – Geronium – Cannae – 1st Nola – Dertosa – 2nd Nola – Cornus – 3rd Nola – 1st Beneventum – 1st Tarentum – 1st Capua – 2nd Beneventum – Silarus – 1st Herdonia – Syracuse – Upper Baetis – 2nd Capua – 2nd Herdonia – Numistro – Asculum – 2nd Tarentum – Baecula – Grumentum – Metaurus – New Carthage – Ilipa – Crotona – Utica – Great Plains – Cirta – Po Valley – Zama |
| Third Punic War |
|---|
| Carthage |
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay - Rome and Carthage - in order to solve internal conflicts. The willingness of both Rome and Carthage to become embroiled on the soil of a third party may indicate a willingness to test each other\'s power without wishing to enter a full war of annihilation; certainly there was considerable disagreement within Rome about whether to prosecute the war at all.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p.68 The war saw land battles in Sicily early on such as the Battle of Agrigentum but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. For the Romans naval warfare was a relatively unexplored concept.Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VIII, 8 Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of as all previous Roman wars had been fought in Italy. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XII, para. 14 forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 309
Rome took to naval warfare "like a brick to water" and the first few naval battles of the First Punic War such as the Battle of the Lipari Islands were catastrophic disasters for Rome, as might fairly be expected from a city that had no real prior experience of naval warfare. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine known as a Corvus,Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 113 a Roman naval force under C. Duillius was able to roundly defeat a Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Mylae. In just 4 years, a state without any real naval experience had managed to better a major regional maritime power in battle. Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and Battle of Cape Ecnomus.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 84
After having won control of the seas, a Roman force landed on the African coast under Regulus, who was at first victorious, winning the Battle of AdysGoldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 86 and forcing Carthage to sue for peace.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 87 However the terms of peace that Rome proposed were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in response, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus, a mercenary from the martial Greek city-state of Sparta, to reorganise and lead their army.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 88 Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy, then defeated and captured RegulusLane Fox, The Classical World, p. 310 at the Battle of Tunis.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 90
Despite being defeated on African soil, with their newfound naval abilities, the Romans roundly beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again - largely through the tactical innovations of the Roman fleet - at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and leaving Carthage without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise one. For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians again sued for peace,Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 128 during which Rome battled the Ligures tribe in the Ligurian WarFlorus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 3 and the Insubres in the Gallic War.Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 4
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca, a member of the Barcid family of Carthaginian nobility, attacked Saguntum,Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 29Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 25 a city with diplomatic ties to Rome.Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XIII, para. 15 Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia and famously crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy.Cantor, Antiquity, p. 153Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 27 In the first battle on Italian soil at Ticinus in 218 BC Hannibal defeated the Romans under Scipio the Elder in a small cavalry fight.Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 30Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 29 Hannibal\'s success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 31 the Battle of Lake Trasimene,where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army,Polybius, The Histories, 243Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 34 and the Battle of Cannae,Polybius, The Histories, 263Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 36 in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art, and for a while "Hannibal seemed invincible", able to beat Roman armies at will.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 38
In the three battles of Nola, Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies at the First Battle of Capua, the Battle of the Silarus, the Second Battle of Herdonia, the Battle of Numistro and the Battle of Asculum. By this time Hannibal\'s brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Despite being defeated in Iberia in the Battle of Baecula, Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator on the Metaurus River.
| "Apart from the romance of Scipio\'s personality and his political importance as the founder of Rome\'s world-dominion, his military work has a greater value to modern students of war than that of any other great captain of the past.. His genius revealed to him that peace and war are the two wheels on which the world runs." |
| BH Liddell Hart on Scipio Africanus MajorLiddell Hart, Scipio Africanus, p. xiii |
Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, and with Hannibal savaging the Italian countryside but unwilling or unable to destroy Rome itself, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 40 In 203 BC at the Battle of Bagbrades the invading Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major defeated the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax and Hannibal was recalled to Africa. At the famous Battle of Zama Scipio decisively defeatedMatyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 41 - perhaps even "annihilated" - Hannibal\'s army in North Africa, ending the Second Punic War.
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic WarPennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XV, para. 24 and the Third Punic War that followed is in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 338 Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 339 The Romans refused the surrender, demanding as their further terms of surrender the complete destruction of the cityFlorus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 15 and, seeing little to lose, the Carthaginians prepared to fight. In the Battle of Carthage the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed,Cantor, Antiquity, p. 154 its culture "almost totally extinguished".Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 12
| Roman conquest of Hispania |
|---|
| Second Punic War - First Celtiberian War – Lusitanian War - Numantine War – Sertorian War – Cantabrian Wars |
Rome\'s conflict with the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars led them into expansion in the Iberian peninsula of modern-day Spain and Portugal.Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 17 The Punic empire of the Carthaginian Barcid family consisted of territories in Iberia, many of which Rome gained control of during the Punic Wars. Italy remained the main theatre of war for much of the Second Punic War, but the Romans also aimed to destroy the Barcid Empire in Iberia and prevent major Punic allies from linking up with forces in Italy.
Over the years Rome had gradually expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum. Following two major military expeditions to Iberia, the Romans finally crushed Carthaginian control of the peninsula in 206 BC, at the Battle of Ilipa, and the peninsula became a Roman province known as Hispania. From 206 BC onwards the only opposition to Roman control of the peninsula came from within the native Celtiberian tribes themselves, the disunity of which prevented security from Roman expansion.
Following two small-scale rebellions in 197 BC,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 122 in 195-194 BC, war broke out in between the Romans and the Lusitani people in the Lusitanian War, in modern-day Portugal.Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XX, para. 2 By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and bringing it under their control.
In around 154 BC, a major revolt was re-ignited in Numantia, which is known as the First Numantine War, and a long war of resistance was fought between the advancing forces of the Roman Republic and the Lusitani tribes of Hispania. The praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba and the proconsul Lucius Licinius Lucullus arrived in 151 BC and began the process of subduing the local population.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 54 Galba betrayed the Lusitani leaders he had invited to peace talks and had them killed in 150 BC, ingloriously ending the first phase of the war.
The Lusitani revolted again in 146 BC under a new leader called Viriathus, invading Turdetania (southern Iberia) in a guerilla war.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 56 The Lusitanians were initially successful, defeating a Roman army at the Battle of Tribola and going on to sack nearby Carpetania,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 57 and then besting a second Roman army at the First Battle of Mount Venus in 146 BC, again going on to sack another nearby city. In 144 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus campaigned successfully against the Lusitani, but failed in his attempts to arrest Viriathus.
In 144 BC, Viriathus formed a league against Rome with several Celtiberian tribesPennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XX, para. 4 and persuaded them to rise against Rome too, in the Second Numantine War.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 58 Viriathus\' new coalition bested Roman armies at the Second Battle of Mount Venus in 144 BC and again at the failed Siege of Erisone. In 139 BC, Viriathus was finally killed in his sleep by three of his companions who had been promised gifts by Rome.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 61 In 136 and 135 BC, more attempts were made to gain complete control of the region of Numantia, but they failed. In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion following the successful Siege of Numantia.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 123
Since the Roman invasion of the Iberian peninsula had begun in the south in the territories around the Mediterranean controlled by the Barcids, the last region of the peninsula to be subdued lay in the far north. The Cantabrian Wars or Astur-Cantabrian Wars, from 29 BC to 19 BC, occurred during the Roman conquest of these northern provinces of Cantabria and Asturias. Iberia was fully occupied by 25 BC and the last revolt put down by 19 BCLuttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 8
Map showing the southern Balkans and western Asia Minor
| Illyrian and Macedonian Wars |
|---|
| Illyrian - First - Second - Third - Fourth |
| First Macedonian War |
|---|
| First Lamia - Second Lamia |
| Second Macedonian War |
|---|
| Cynoscephalae |
| Third Macedonian War |
|---|
| Callicinus – Pydna |
| Fourth Macedonian War |
|---|
| Pydna (148 BC) |
| Roman-Syrian War |
|---|
| Thermopylae – Eurymedon – Myonessus – Magnesia |
Rome\'s preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal\'s camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 47Grant, The History of Rome, p. 115 However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip\'s emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by a Roman fleet. Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere, Rome sought out land allies in Greece to fight a proxy war against Macedon on its behalf and found partners in the Aetolian League of Greek city-states, the Illyrians to the north of Macedon and the city-states of PergamonGrant, The History of Rome, p. 116 and Rhodes, which lay across the Aegean from Macedon in modern-day Turkey.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 48
The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations and when the Aetolians sued for peace with Philip once more Rome\'s small expeditionary force, with no more allies in Greece, but having achieved their objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal, was ready to make peace. A treaty was drawn up between Rome and Macedon at Phoenice in 205 BC which promised Rome a small indemnity, formally ending the First Macedonian War.Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 71
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these states pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 49 Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip, unsurprisingly, refused and, after initial internal reluctance for further hostilities,Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 72 Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War. In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians,Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 73 and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC, in the Battle of Cynoscephalae,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 117 Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively.Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 325 Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia, and had to pay a war indemnity to Rome.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome. p. 51
Between the second and third Macedonian wars Rome faced further conflict in the region due to a tapestry of shifting rivalries, alliances and leagues all seeking to gain greater influence. After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city-state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece. Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the region, the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman-Spartan War, defeating a Spartan army at the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC. They also fought their former allies the Aetolian League in the Aetolian War,Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 9 against the Istrians in the Istrian War,Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 10 against the Illyrians in the Illyrian War,Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 13 and against Achaia in the Achaean War.Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 16
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire to the east. After campaigns as far abroad as Bactria, India, Persia and Judea, Antiochus moved to Asia Minor and ThracePennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XVII, para. 1 to secure several coastal towns, a move that brought him into conflict with Roman interests. A Roman force under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeated Antiochus at the Battle of ThermopylaeLane Fox, The Classical World, p. 325 and forced him to evacuate Greece:Grant, The History of Rome, p. 119 the Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them again in naval battles at the Battle of the Eurymedon and Battle of Myonessus, and finally in a decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia.Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 326
In 179 BC Philip diedGrant, The History of Rome, p. 120 and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece.Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 75 He also allied himself with the warlike Bastarnae, and both this and his actions in Greece possibly violated the treaty signed with the Romans by his father or, if not, certainly was not "behaving as [Rome considered] a subordinate ally should". Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father, winning the Battle of Callicinus against a Roman consular army. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BCGoldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 92 and the Macedonians, lacking the reserve of the Romans and with King Perseus captured,Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 328 duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 53
The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon and began when Andriscus usurped the Macedonian throne. The Romans raise a consular army under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, who swiftly defeated Andriscus at the Second battle of Pydna.
Under Lucius Mummius Corinth was destroyed, following a siege in 146 BC, leading to the surrender and thus conquest of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth).
| Jugurthine War |
|---|
| Cirta - Suthul - Muthul - Thala |
Rome had, in the earlier Punic Wars, gained large tracts of territory in Africa, which they had consolidated in the following centuries,Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 9 and much of which had been granted to the kingdom of Numidia, a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria, in return for its past military assistance.Sallust, The Jugurthine War, V The Jugurthine War of 111-104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29 after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha\'s usurpation of the Numidian throne,Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XII a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 64 Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpationMatyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 65Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 1Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XIII and was granted half the kingdom. Following further aggression and further bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to tackle him. The Romans were defeated at the Battle of SuthulSallust, The Jugurthine War, XVIII but fared better at the Battle of the MuthulSallust, The Jugurthine War, LII and finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 69Sallust, The Jugurthine War, LXXVI the Battle of Mulucha,Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XCIV and the Battle of Cirta(104 BC).Sallust, The Jugurthine War, CI Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 153Sallust, The Jugurthine War, CXIII ending the war.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 71
By 121 BC, memories of Rome itself being sacked by Celtic tribes from Gaul were still prominent despite their historical distance, having been made into a legendary account that was taught to each generation of Roman youth. However, Rome was, unknown at the time, to face a resurgent Celtic threat within the next year. In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni, both of which they defeated with apparent in ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon, the same year.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 152
| Cimbrian War |
|---|
| Noreia – Arausio – Aquae Sextiae – Vercellae |
The Cimbrian War (113-101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the CimbriAppian, History of Rome, §6 and the Teutons or Teutones migrated from northern Europe into Rome\'s northern territories,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 75 and clashed with Rome and her allies.Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 6 The Cimbrian War was the first time since the Second Punic War that Italia and Rome itself had been seriously threatened, and caused great fear in Rome for some time. The Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, was the opening action of the Cimbrian War fought between the Roman Republic and the migrating Proto-Germanic tribes the Cimbri and the Teutons (Teutones). It ended in defeat, and near disaster, for the Romans. In 105 BC The Romans suffered one of their worst defeats ever at The Battle of Arausio, It was the costliest defeat Rome had suffered since The Battle of Cannae. After the Cimbri inadvertently granted the Romans a reprieve by diverting to plunder Iberia,Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 3 Rome was given the opportunity to carefully prepare for and successfully meet the Cimbri and Teutons in battle in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae where Both tribes were virtually annihalated, ending the threat.
| Servile Wars |
|---|
| First – Second – Third |
| Ancient Unification of Italy |
|---|
| Latin War – Samnite Wars – Pyrrhic War – Social War |
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state, and to a willingness to follow their generals in battle against the state.Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 39 Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the last century before the common era at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate\'s authority, and was made princeps (emperor).
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three "Servile Wars" involving slave uprisings against the Roman state, the third and final uprising the most serious,Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 77 involving ultimately between 120,000Appian, Civil Wars, 1, 117 and 150,000Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 43 revolting slaves. Additionally, in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 156Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 351 collectively known as the Socii, over dissent among the allies that they shared the risk of Rome\'s military campaigns, but not its rewards.Cantor, Antiquity, p. 167Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 30 Despite defeats such as the Battle of Fucine Lake, Roman troops defeated the Italian militias in decisive engagements, notably the Battle of Asculum. Although they lost militarily, the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.
The internal unrest reached its most serious, however, in the two civil wars or marches upon Rome of the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate, along with some Samnite allies.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 161 Whatever the rights and wrongs of his grievances against those in power of the state, his actions mark
